The French Revolution Pre-Revolutionary France

In 1789, the French Revolution began a transformation of far more than just France, but Europe and then the world. It was the pre-revolutionary makeup of France that held the seeds of the circumstances for revolution, and affected how it was begun, developed, and—depending on what you believe—ended. Certainly, when the Third Estate and their growing followers swept away centuries of dynastic political tradition, it was the structure of France they were attacking as much as its principles. The Country Pre-revolutionary France was a jigsaw of lands which had been haphazardly aggregated over the preceding centuries, the different laws and institutions of each new addition often kept intact. The latest addition was the island of Corsica, coming into the French crowns possession in 1768. By 1789, France comprised an estimated 28 million people and was divided into provinces of vastly varying size, from the huge Brittany to the tiny Foix. Geography varied greatly from mountainous regions to rolling plains. The nation was also divided into 36 generalities for administrative purposes and these, again, varied in size and shape to both each other and the provinces. There were further subdivisions for each level of the church. Laws also varied. There were thirteen sovereign courts of appeal whose jurisdiction unevenly covered the whole country: the Paris court covered a third of France, the Pav court just its own tiny province. Further confusion arose with the absence of any universal law beyond that of royal decrees. Instead, the precise codes and rules varied across France, with the Paris region mainly using customary law and the south a written code. Lawyers who specialized in handling the many different layers flourished. Each region also had its own weights and measures, tax, customs, and laws. These divisions and differences were continued at the level of every town and village. Rural and Urban France was still essentially a feudal nation with lords, due to a range of ancient and modern rights from their peasants who comprised about 80% of the population and the majority lived in rural contexts. France was a predominantly agricultural nation, even though this agriculture was low in productivity, wasteful, and using out of date methods. An attempt to introduce modern techniques from Britain had not succeeded. Inheritance laws, whereby estates were divided up among all the heirs, had left France divided into many tiny farms; even the large estates were small when compared to other European nations. The only major region of large-scale farming was around Paris, where the always hungry capital city provided a convenient market. Harvests were critical but fluctuating, causing famine, high prices, and riots. The remaining 20% of France lived in urban areas, although there were only eight cities with a population in excess of 50,000 people. These were home to guilds, workshops, and industry, with workers often traveling from rural areas to urban ones in search of seasonal or permanent work. Death rates were high. Ports with access to overseas trade flourished, but this maritime capital didnt penetrate far into the rest of France. Society France was governed by a king who was believed to be appointed by the grace of God; in 1789, this was Louis XVI, crowned on the death of his grandfather Louis XV on May 10, 1774. Ten thousand people worked in his main palace at Versailles, and 5% of his income was spent supporting it. The rest of French society considered itself divided into three groups: the estates. The First Estate was the clergy, who numbered around 130,000 people, owned a tenth of the land, and were due tithes, religious donations of of one-tenth of income from every single person, although the practical applications varied hugely. Clergy were immune from tax and frequently drawn from noble families. They were all part of the Catholic Church, the only official religion in France. Despite strong pockets of Protestantism, over 97% of the French population considered themselves Catholic. The Second Estate was the nobility, numbering around 120,000 people. The nobility were made up of people born into noble families, as well as those who obtained highly sought after government offices that conferred noble status. Nobles were privileged, didnt work, had special courts and tax exemptions, owned the leading positions in court and society—almost all of Louis XIVs ministers were noble—and were even allowed a different, quicker, method of execution. Although some were enormously rich, many were no better off than the lowest of the French middle classes, possessing little more than a strong lineage and some feudal dues. The remainder of France, over 99%, formed the Third Estate. The majority were peasants who lived in near poverty, but around two million were the middle classes: the bourgeoisie. These had doubled in number between the years of Louis XIV (r. 1643–1715) and XVI (r. 1754–1792) and owned around a quarter of French land. The common development of a bourgeoisie family was for one to make a fortune in business or trade and then plow that money into land and education for their children, who joined professions, abandoned the old business and lived their lives in comfortable, but not excessive existences, passing their offices down to their own children. One notable revolutionary, Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794), was a third-generation lawyer. One key aspect of bourgeois existence was venal offices, positions of power and wealth within the royal administration which could be purchased and inherited: the entire legal system was comprised of purchasable offices. Demand for these was high and the costs rose ever higher. France and Europe By the late 1780s, France was one of the worlds great nations. A military reputation which had suffered during the Seven Years War had been partly salvaged thanks to Frances critical contribution in defeating Britain during the American Revolutionary War, and their diplomacy was highly regarded, having avoided war in Europe during the same conflict. However, it was with culture that France dominated. With the exception of England, the upper classes across Europe copied French architecture, furniture, fashion, and more while the main language of royal courts and the educated was French. Journals and pamphlets produced in France were disseminated across Europe, allowing the elites of other nations to read and quickly understand the literature of the French Revolution. By the lead-up to the revolution, a European backlash against this French domination had already begun, with groups of writers arguing that their own national languages and cultures should be pursued instead. Those changes would not occur until the next century. Sources and Further Reading Schama, Simon. Citizens. New York: Random House, 1989.  Fremont-Barnes, Gregory. The French Revolutionary Wars. Oxford UK: Osprey Publishing, 2001.  Doyle, William. The Oxford History of the French Revolution. 3rd ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2018.

Vaccination Intervention Speech Outline - 1696 Words

I. The Attention Step A: Attention: September 16th, 2015 was a sad day for America. GOP presidential candidate Donald Trump, a successful presidential candidate, shared the fallacy that vaccinations of infants were linked to autism. Millions of patriotic U.S citizens were watching this debate, for guidance on how the leader of our country will improve the countries’ unfavorable circumstances. However, his statement only demonstrated a growing fallacy that continues to haunt the wellbeing of various American communities. Significance: B. It is sick, disgraceful, and abusive to refuse, for your child, a vaccination which can grant them a future of livelihood, happiness and, guaranteed health. Many outbreaks of dangerous diseases such as†¦show more content†¦Preview: E. Fortunately, millions of American families have ensured their children’s health by choosing to administer vaccinations for infants over the years. As a result, measles, mumps, and rubella have been nearly eradicated from the United States. However, a growing number of families have adopted a false notion that vaccines are linked to autism. I am going to explain to you that this is not the case, and the benefits of vaccinations far outweigh these nonsensical concerns. II. The Need Step A. The First Main Point. Vaccinations are essential for the health and education of American communities. They have proven to be highly effective in preventing measles, mumps, and rubella. 1. According to National Centre for Immunisation Research and Surveilance, these are some of the awful symptoms associated with diseases preventable by vaccines. a. Measles is a highly contagious disease spread by mucous from the nose or mouth. Its symptoms include fever, rash, and painful red eyes. Thus, leaving children absent from school for two weeks for recovery (Symptoms of measles, mumps and rubella.). b. Mumps is not as deadly but still may lead to serious complications such as swelling of the brain in addition to typical cold symptoms. Mumps also leads to swollen glands in the cheeks (Symptoms of measles, mumps and rubella.). c. Rubella has similar symptoms to mumps. However, if contracted by a pregnant woman with a less than 3-month developed fetus, itShow MoreRelatedAcute Obstructive Pulmonary Disease ( Copd )2076 Words   |  9 Pagesthis paper will firstly outline a brief summary of COPD and discuss the associated risk factors. Secondly, the patient’s information will be summarised. From the perspective of the primary Registered Nurse, this paper will detail steps of an initial clinical assessment of the patient. In doing this, the priorities and considerations involved in order to provide best patient care for this scenario will be addressed. A discussion of information and suggested interventions will be integrated as toRead MoreAdult Immunizations And Vaccines : Types And Advice For Community Nurses Essay1992 Words   |  8 Pages Older adults aged 65 and older are at an increased risk of acquiring diseases. Herpes zoster (shingles) and pneumonia are very common among the i llnesses that older adults can develop. Research exists which validates the fact that vaccinations against pneumonia and shingles lessen the impact and the occurrence of these diseases. Due to the fact that many individuals in this age group are inflexible, it can be difficult to help them understand the importance of immunizations. Nurses andRead MoreAutism Spectrum Disorder ( Asd )1774 Words   |  8 Pagesfrom a medical professional because earlier intervention results in better outcomes, and may even result in only mild impairments. Autism Spectrum Disorder Some of the biggest issues of autism is the lack of knowledge on the disorder. 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Sedimentary Rocks and Mining Mineral Exploration

Question: Describe about the Sedimentary Rocks and Mining for Mineral Exploration. Answer: Introduction Mineral exploration and mining is the process of exploration and extraction of valuable geological materials from underground and excavation sites. The mining task comprises of exploration to determine the site of mineral using research and other technical methods, followed by a feasibility study of the mining activity. Depending on the outcome of the feasibility study, the activity of mining is taken up.The task of mining comprises of excavation of layers of earth depending on the type of mining that is carried out. Surface and sub-surface (underground) are the two broad categories of mining. Surface mining is the name given to the mining task that includes the process of removing the surface or layers of earth to reach the mines. The process includes open-pit mining, quarrying, strip-mining, mountaintop removal and landfill mining. Sub-surface mining or underground mining is the process of extracting minerals from the deposits through tunnels and shafts without disrupting the surro unding areas. Slope mining, shaft mining and drift mining are a few examples of sub-surface mining (Brady and Brown 2013). Mining in any from requires excavation of earth and involves the profiling the geology of the mining area. An understanding of the nature of the site provides an insight into the technique that can be used for the excavation process. The rationale behind the difference in techniques is the properties and characteristics of the material the site is formed of. Thus, the property of rocks has an influential status in mining engineering. Rock mechanics is concerned with the study of the properties of rock and the response of rocks to mechanical activities. Rock mechanics is extensively used in the mining industry to understand and exploit the properties of rocks in the process of mining. Sedimentary rocks Sedimentary rocks are formed by the lithification of sediments deposited over time. The formation of sedimentary rocks begins with the process of weathering and erosion of existing rocks in the nearby regions. A number of natural factors that include air and water carry the broken and loosened up materials. These carriers carry the sediments from the source to the destination locations and deposit the sediments. Gradually the sediments are affected by surrounding moisture and the minerals in the sediments starts settling down and consolidate in a process known as cementation. The carriers deposit more sediment over the cemented sediments forming lithostatic pressure, which solidifies the former sediments in a process termed as compaction. Sedimentary rocks are broadly classified in to four groups: clastic, chemical, bio-chemical and others (Obert and Duvall 2013). The typical weathering of bigger rocks forms clastic rocks. The rocks are weathered over time into smaller rocks and the pressure of fresh sediments consolidates these weathered rocks. Depending on grain size, clastic rocks can be further classified into conglomerates, sandstone and mudstone. Chemical rocks are formed by the precipitation of minerals on the bottom of water bodies. Bio-chemical rocks are formed as a result of biological processes. Limestone and fossil fuel are the classic examples of bio-chemical rocks. Other types of sedimentary rocks are formed due unprecedented, irregular events such as floods or mining (Sivakugan et al. 2013). Gypsum mine tragedy A case study According to a report by BBC (BBC News 2016), a gypsum mine in Pingyi Countrys Linyi city in the Shandong province in China a gypsum mine collapsed in the late 2015. The incident led to the entrapment of around 17 miners in the tragedy. The basic reason for such collapses is the lack of analysis of the material the mine is composed of. The design of the support structure of the mine also plays a crucial role. Sedimentary rocks are ductile by nature and distorts under pressure. The underground mining of sedimentary rocks requires support structure to support the mine walls on the excavation of the minerals. The construction of the support structure demands the understanding of sedimentary rocks and the properties of the mineral being extracted (Spiezia et al. 2016). The gypsum mine in Shandong province was unable to construct an appropriate support structure and also failed to provide an escape route which a mine of sedimentary rock requires. Conclusion Mining involves considerable costs and efforts. Analysis of the properties of the minerals and the effect it exerts on its surrounding land structure is an essential requirement in the process of mining. Rock mechanics is the study of mechanical behavior of rocks and applying methods to exploit the analyzed properties. The subject is of considerable importance to the mining industry as it provides the foundation based on which the organization initiates the activity. Mining engineering is another subject that has considerable role to play in the mining industry. Knowledgeable decisions and trained manpower is the key to overcome the issues. References BBC News. (2016). Chinese mine owner kills himself as 17 miners remain trapped - BBC News. [online] Available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-35185133 [Accessed 22 Nov. 2016]. Brady, B.H. and Brown, E.T., 2013.Rock mechanics: for underground mining. Springer Science Business Media. Feng, R.M. and Chugh, Y.P., 2014. Development of backfill design parameters for control of surface and subsurface mining related movements.Legislation, Technology and Practice of Mine Land Reclamation,1, p.297. Obert, L. and Duvall, W.I., 2013. Rock Mechanics and the Design of Structures in Rock. Sivakugan, N., Shukla, S.K. and Das, B.M., 2013.Rock Mechanics: an introduction. Crc Press. Spiezia, N., Salomoni, V.A. and Majorana, C.E., 2016. Plasticity and strain localization around a horizontal wellbore drilled through a porous rock formation.International Journal of Plasticity,78, pp.114-144.